Table 2 Characteristics of the bacteriophages isolated from C. difficile
Authors | Year | Phage | Bacteriophage family | C. difficile strains | Isolation method | Genome size (kb) | G + C (%) | Growth cycle and additional information | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Goh et al. | 2005 | phiC2, phiC5, phiC8 | Myoviridae | CD242, CD578 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 43.3–54.5 | 45.9–56.5 | Lysogenic, upregulation of PaLoc: tcdB | [79] |
phiC6 | Siphoviridae | CD371 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 36.3 | 36.3 | Lysogenic | |||
Sebaihia et al. | 2006 | φCD630 | Myoviridae | CD630 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 56.5 | 29.1 | Lysogenic, applied for CRISPR arrays | [73] |
Govind et al. | 2006 | φCD119 | Myoviridae | CD602 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 53 | 28.7 | Lysogenic, downregulation of PaLoc: tcdA, tcdB, tcdR, tcdE, tcdC | [80] |
Fortier and Moineau | 2007 | φCD5 | Myoviridae | CD630, CD44, CD52 | Induction (mytomycin C) | NA | NA | Lysogenic | [81] |
φCD8-1, φCD8-2 | Siphoviridae | CD630, CD44, CD52 | Induction (mytomycin C) | NA | NA | Lysogenic | |||
Goh et al. | 2007 | φC2 | Myoviridae | CD242, CD578, CD371, CD371 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 56 | 28.7 | Lysogenic | [82] |
Mayer et al. | 2008 | φCD27 | Myoviridae | NA | Induction (mytomycin C) | 50 | 29.4 | Lysogenic, downregulation of PaLoc: tcdA, tcdB | [83] |
Horgan et al. | 2010 | φCD6356, φCD6365 | Siphoviridae | D38-2 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 37.6 | 28.4 | Lysogenic | [84] |
Sekulovic et al. | 2011 | φCD52 | Myoviridae | NA | Induction (mytomycin C) | NA | NA | Lysogenic | [85] |
φCD24, φCD38-1, φCD38-2 | Siphoviridae | CD38 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 41.1 | 30.8 | Lysogenic, increase in the production of TcdB and TcdA and downregulation of metabolism like fructose and sorbitol | |||
Meessen-Pinard et al. | 2012 | φMMP01, φMMP03, φMMP04, φCD418 | Myoviridae | CD343, CD368 | Natural induction | 23–51 | 31.6–48.4 | Lysogenic | [86] |
Sekulovic et al. | 2014 | phiCD146 | Siphoviridae | CD146 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 30–60 | NA | Lysogenic | [53] |
Nale et al. | 2016 | phiCDHM1, phiCDHM2, phiCDHM3, phiCDHM4, phiCDHM5, phiCDHM6 | Myoviridae | CD105HE1 | Enrichment and induction | NA | NA | Lysogenic | [74] |
phiCDHS1 | Myoviridae | CD105LC1 | Enrichment | NA | NA | Lytic | |||
Rashid et al. | 2016 | CDKM15, CDKM9 | Myoviridae | NA | NA | ~ 50 | 28.98 | Lysogenic | |
Riedel et al. | 2017 | phiSemix9P1 | Myoviridae | Semix9 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 56 | 26.89 | Lytic | [88] |
Ramirez et al. | 2018 | phiCD5763, phiCD5774, phiCD2955 | Siphoviridae | LIBA-5763, LIBA-5774, LIBA-2955 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 131.6–134 | ~ 26 | Lysogenic | [89] |
Garneau et al. | 2018 | phiCD211, phiCDIF1296T | Siphoviridae | DSM1296 T/ATCC9689/CD211 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 131 | 26.4 | Lysogenic | [90] |
Phothichaisri et al. | 2018 | phiHN10, phiHN16-1, phiHN16-2, phiHN50 | Myoviridae | HN10, HN16, HN50 | Induction (mytomycin C) | NA | NA | Lysogenic | [70] |
φHR24, φHN10, φHN16-2, φHN50 | Myoviridae | HN21 | Induction (mytomycin C) | NA | NA | Lysogenic | |||
φHN16-1 | Tectiviridae | NA | Induction (mytomycin C) | NA | NA | Lysogenic | |||
Li et al. | 2020 | JD032 | Myoviridae | TW69 | Induction (mytomycin C) | 35 | 29.93 | Lysogenic-lytic, altering the expression of cell surface proteins | [91] |
Hinc et al. | 2021 | phiCDKH01 | Siphoviridae | CD34-Sr | Induction (mytomycin C) | 45 | 28.7 | Lysogenic | [92] |
Whittle et al. | 2022 | UCD08011, UCD418, UCD1801, UCD2301 | Myoviridae | RT078 | Enrichment and induction | 31–53 | 28.8–29.8 | Lysogenic | [72] |